THE、ILLUSION OF FILM
1Film is an illusion because the moving pictures seen on the screen are not moving at all.A、fihn is actually a series of tiny still pictures, or flames. They appear to be moving because the retina of the human eye retains the impression of an object for a split second after that object has actually disappeareD、This principle is known as the persistence of vision. When we look at a single frame of film, the image persists in the brain’s visual center for a fraction of a seconD、Then, the next frame comes along and the brain has to catch up with the new image. Thus, our eyes and brain trick us into thinking that we see a smoothly moving image rather than a series of still ones.
2 Another illusion of film is known collectively as special effects, the tricks and techniques that filmmakers use when makeup, costume, and stunts are still not enough to make a scene convincing. Special effects artists apply science to filmmaking, showing us things that no plain camera could ever photograph.Even since the introduction of computer graphics in recent decades, the films of today still rely on some special effects that have existed since the early years of cinemA、
3One category of special effects is called optical or visual effects, tricks made with the camerA、One of the pioneers of optical effects was the French filmmaker Georges Méliès, who invented a technique called stop-motion photography. With this technique, a scene is filmed, the camera is stopped, the scene is changed in some way, and then the camera rolls again. Stop motion photography can create th.e illusion of an actor disappearing on screen. In one short film, an actor’s clothes keep returning to his body as he tries to get undresseD、Méliès also invented a technique known as split screen.By putting a card over the camera lens, he prevented half of the frame of fihn from being exposeD、He filmed a scene on the uncovered half of the frame and then backed up the same strip of fihn in his camerA、For the second shot, he covered the exposed half and took another series of pictures on the half that had been covered the first time. With the technique of split screen, it is possible to achieve illusions such as having the same actor play twins.
4Mechanical effects are another category of special effects. Mechanical effects are objects or devices used during the filming to create an illusion, such as feathers or plastic chips to simulate snow, and wires to create the illusion that people are flying. Many sound effects are mechanical effects. Wood blocks create a horse’s hoofbeats, and a vibrating sheet of metal sounds like thunder.During the silent film era, the music machine called the Kinematophone was popular because it could produce the sounds of sirens, sleigh bells, gunfire, baby cries, and kisses-all at the press of a key.
5Other mechanical effects are puppets, robots of all sizes, and tiny copies of buildings or cities. To reduce the cost of studio sets or location photography, special-effects technicians create painted or projected backgrounds, which replace the set or add to it. For example, in a long shot of a town, the set might be only a few feet high, and the remainder of the town is painted onto a sheet of glass positioned in fiont of the camera during filming. In a 1916 silent film called The Flying Torpedo, mechanical effects created the appearance of an enemy invasion of theCalifornia seacoast. Technicians threw small contact-rigged explosives into toy cities, scattering the tiny buildings into the air.An artist painted a row of battleships on a board that was only six feet long.Carpenters drilled small holes in the ships, which were filled with small charges of flash powder to simulate guns.An electrician wired the charges so they could be fired on cue from a small battery. For audiences of the time, the effect was of a real fle

Philosophy of LogicalAnalysis
Modern physics and physiology throw a new light upon the ancient problem of perception. If there is to be anything that can be called "perception", it must be in some degree an effect of the object perceived, and it must more or less resemble the object if it is to be a source of knowledge of the object. The first requisite can only be fulfilled if there are causal chains which are, to a greater or lesser extent, independent of the rest of the worlD、According to physics, this is the case.
Modern analytical empiricism differs from that of Locke,Berkeley, and Hume by its incorporation of mathematics and its development of a powerful logical technique. It is thus able, in regard to certain problems, to achieve definite answers, which have the quality of science rather than philosophy. It has the advantage; as compared with philosophies of system-builders, of being able to tackle its problems one at a time, instead of having to invent at one stroke a block theory of the whole universe. Its methods, in this respect, resemble those of science.
There remains, however, a vast field, traditionally included in philosophy, where scientific methods are inadequate. This field includes ultimate questions of value; science alone, for example, cannot prove that it is bad to enjoy the infliction cruelty. Whatever can be known, can be known by means of science; but things which are legitimately matters of feeling lie outside its province.
Philosophy, throughout its history, has consisted of two parts inharmoniously blended: on the one hand, a theory as to the nature of the world, on the other hand, an ethical or political doctrine as to the best way of living.
A、[■] The failure to separate these two with sufficient clarity has been a source of much confused thinking.
B、[■] Philosophers, from Plato to William James, have allowed their opinions as to the constitution of the universe to be influenced by the desire for edification: knowing, as they supposed, what beliefs would make men virtuous, they have invented arguments, often very sophisticated, to prove that these beliefs are true.
C、[■] Morally, a philosopher who uses his professional competence for anything except a disinterested search for truth is guilty of a kind of treachery.And when he assumes, in advance of inquiry, that certain beliefs, whether true or false, are such as to promote good behavior, he is so limiting the scope of philosophical speculation as to make philosophy trivial; the true philosopher is prepared to examine all preconceptions.
D、[■] When any limits are placed, consciously or unconsciously, upon the pursuit of truth, philosophy becomes paralyzed by fear, and the ground is prepared for a government censorship punishing those who utter "dangerous thoughts" -in fact, the philosopher has already placed such a censorship over his own investigations.
Intellectually, the effect of mistaken moral considerations upon philosophy has been to impede progress to an extraordinary extent. I do not myself believe that philosophy can either prove or disapprove the truth of religious dogmas, but ever since Plato most philosophers have considered it part of their business to produce "proofs" of immortality and the existence of GoD、They have found fault with the proofs of their predecessors—Saint Thomas rejected SaintAnselm’s proofs, and Kant rejectedDescartes’—but they have supplied new ones of their own. In order to make their proofs seem valid, they have had to falsify logic, to make mathematics mystical, and to pretend that deep-seated prejudices were heaven-sent intuitions.
All this is rejected by the philosophers who make logical analysis the main business of philosophy. They confess frankly that the human intellect is of profound importance to mankind, but they refuse to believe that there is some "higher" way of knowing, by whic

Tourism inChile
The biggest problem facingChile, as it promotes itself as a tourist destination to be reckoned with, is that it is at the end of the earth. It is too far south to be a convenient stop on the way to anywhere else and it is considerably farther than a relatively cheap half-day’s flight away from other major tourist markets, such as Mexico.
Chile, therefore, is having to fight hard to attract tourists, to convince travelers that it is worth coming halfway round the world to visit.But it is succeeding, not only in existing markets like the USA、and WesternEurope but in new territories, in particular the FarEast. Markets closer to home, however, are not being forgotten. More than 50% of visitors toChile still come from its nearest neighbor,Argentina, where the cost of living is much higher.
Similar to all the other SouthAmerican countries,Chile sees tourism as a valuable earner of foreign currency, although it has been far more serious than most in promoting its image abroaD、Relatively stable politically within the region, it has benefited from the problems suffered in other areas. In Peru, guerrilla warfare in recent years has dealt a heavy blow to the tourist industry and fear of street crime inBrazil has reduced the attraction of Rio de Janeiro as a dream destination for foreigners.
More than 150000 people are directly involved inChile’s tourist sector, an industry which earns the country more than U.S. $ 950 million each year. The state-run National Tourism Service, in partnership with a number of private companies, is currently running a world-wide campaign, taking part in trade fairs and international events to attract visitors toChile.
Chile’s great strength as a tourist destination is its geographical diversity. From the parchedAtacamaDesert in the north to theAntarctic snowfields of the south, it is more than 5000 km long. With the Pacific on one side and theAndean mountains on the other,Chile boasts natural attractions. Its beaches are not up toCaribbean standards but resorts such as Vinadel Mar are generally clean and unspoiled and have a high standard of services.
But the trump card is theAndes mountain range. There are a number of excellent ski resorts within one hour’s drive of the capital, Santiago, and the national parks in the south are home to rare animal and plant species. The parks already attract specialist visitors, including mountaineers, who come to climb the technically difficult peaks, and fishermen, lured by the salmon and trout in the region’s rivers.
However, infrastructural development in these areas is limiteD、The ski resorts do not have as many lifts as theirEuropean counterparts and part poor quality of roads in the south means that only the most determined travelers see the best of the national parks.
A、[■]Air links betweenChile and the rest of the world are, at present, relatively poor.
B、[■] WhileChile’s two largest airlines have extensive networks within SouthAmerica, they operate only a small number of routes to the U.S. andEurope while services toAsia are almost non-existent.
C、[■] Internal transport links are being improved and luxury hotels are being built in one of its national parks.
D、[■]Easter Island andChilesAntarctic Territory are also on the list of areas where the government believes it can create tourist markets.
But the rush to open hitherto inaccessible areas to mass tourism is not being welcomed by everyone. Indigenous and environmental groups, including Greenpeace, say that many parts of theAndes will suffer if they become over-developeD、There is a genuine fear that areas ofChile will suffer the cultural destruction witnessed in Mexican andEuropean resorts.
The policy of opening upAntarctica to tourism is also politically sensitive.Chile already has permanent settlements on the ice and many peo

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