A、ScientificDebate: Neptunism vs. Plutonism
1. For modern geologists, the question of how rocks are formed has been answereD、The processes by which sediments are cemented together to form sedimentary rocks, subterranean magma shoots to the surface to form igneous rocks, and intense heat and pressure transform both of these into metamorphic rocks are well understooD、But in the days when geology was just beginning to develop as a separate scientific discipline, the origin ofEarth’s rocks was the subject of an intense debate.Among the theories circulating around the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries were two primary contenders: Neptunism, posited by the GermanAbraham Werner, and Plutonism, a theory of James Hutton, a Scottish geologist.
2. To fully understand the debate between Neptunism and Plutonism, it is essential to first examine the broader scientific context in place at the time.Before the nineteenth century, the accepted view ofEarth’s history was defined by a concept known asCatastrophism. Its basic tenets were that the planet was of a young age and that its past was marked by a series of distinct and catastrophic events. InEngland in particular, this theory was influenced by the belief that a worldwide flood had occurred as described in theChristianBible.
3. Werner’s theory of Neptunism relied on some of the assumptions inherent inCatastrophism. The word Neptunism comes from the name of the Roman god of the sea, Neptune, as Werner suggested that all ofEarth had once been covered by a vast, hot ocean.The waters of this ocean, he said, contained small amounts of diluted minerals. Over time, these ancient waters evaporated and sank lower, and as they disappeared, the minerals remained and fused into crystals to produce the rocks and landmasses visible onEarth’s surface.A、series of later catastrophic floods, such as the one reported in theBible, added more rocks and explained the different rock layers that geologists were beginning to discover around this time.
4.Concurrently, there were many other geologists who were starting to reject the notion ofCatastrophism.
Much of the contemporary evidence being collected regarding fossils and the complexity and diversity of geologic formations suggested that the planet was much older than anyone had previously thought,
As a result, the theory of Uniformitarianism was introduced, which stated thatEarth’s geologic processes were gradual and unfolding at an incredibly slow rate over an immense timeframe.
Even more important for the field of geology, Uniformitarianism held that those same processes were still occurring.

5. James Hutton was among the earliest proponents of Uniformitarianism, and it greatly informed his theory of Plutonism. Named for the Roman god of the underworld, Pluto, it stated thatEarth’s rocks were created through the tremendous heat and force of volcanic activity. Hutton described a continuous cycle by which heat deep withinEarth pushed up the land above, creating mountains and volcanoes, and deposited rocks on the surface. Erosion over time would break down the rocks and transport their sediments to the bottom of the oceans, where they were heated and turned into solid rock once more, and again lifted to the surface by volcanic activity.This concept of a long, continuous cycle was a clear expression of Uniformitarianism and provided a better explanation for how the geologic complexities ofEarth had taken shape.
6.During the first half of the nineteenth century, increasing numbers of scientists adopted Hutton’s views, and today he is often refe

Civilization
Before about 3500BC, there were cultures, but not civilizations. Prehistoric men and women created societies, constructed houses, lived in villages, hunted and fished, farmed, made pottery, wove cloth and created languages.But unlike more advanced peoples, they did not build cities, read or write.Cities are the cornerstone of civilized life because with them came other civilizing elements, including differentiation of classes and employment, sophisticated religious and political systems, monumental architecture and the formation of states and empires.
Historians usually begin the story of civilization with accounts of the world’s first great writers and city-builders, the Sumerians.Because the Sumerians recorded ideas and sagas and listed the names of their rulers, we know more about them than about prehistoric peoples who left their legacy in stones, bones and pottery.
With the ability to build cities and record thoughts came the ability to communicate ideas and innovations over vast reaches of time and space. Human beings—who had formerly taken hundreds of thousands of years to learn that a stone ax sharpened on both sides is more useful than an ax sharpened on one side—progressed rapidly from foot travel to horse drawn carts, and later from railways to airplanes. With these and thousands of other innovations, people came to live longer, more comfortable lives.
Civilization also brought new ills to humanity. In the 20th century it brought nuclear warfare, global warming, and ozone depletion. More subtly, civilization removed human beings from regular encounters with the wonders of the natural worlD、Unlike people of modern civilizations, primitive people lived close to the sounds and smells of forest and grasslands. They looked at fire and the stars with awe and reverence.Civilization involves the ability to create a new political and cultural worlD、In the 19th century theAmerican writer, philosopher and naturalist HenryDavid Thoreau noted that this artificial sphere separates humanity from primitive virtue. "Most of the luxuries", he argued, "and many of the so-called comforts of life are not only not indispensable, but positive hindrances to the elevations of mankinD、" Thoreau believed that men and women should simplify their lives.
A、[■] To live well and happily usually doesn’t mean to live very luxuriously, the material enjoyment and much expense can satisfy you to some extent, but to enjoy a simple life also can make you feel fine and comfortable, something in your mind or in your spiritual world can bring more or influence much on your life and your happiness value.
B、[■] They expressed this sense of regret in the story of Prometheus and PandorA、Contrary to the wishes of other gods, Prometheus brought to humanity the gifts of fire, art and science. The jealous gods were unwilling to allow men and women to enjoy such blessings without cost, and so they sent Pandora to the world with a box containing disease, sorrow and other evils.
C、[■] From then on, the world wasn’t quiet or fortunate all the time, some people suffered from them and always got punished in one way or other. The people began to pay as well as they gain some achievement during the progress process. Human beings have viewed civilization as a mixed blessing.Civilized people have waged brutal wars, destroyed majestic forests and persecuted religious minorities.
D、[■]But civilizations have also achieved wonders.
We cannot list with words all the achievements of the human beings with the help and development of civilization. The abilities of writing and reading can spread one kind of culture or invention to other places, and advanced science and technology have allowed human beings to enjoy much more convenient and interesting lives. With many inventions of modern life, many places where people could not reac

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