A、ScientificDebate: Neptunism vs. Plutonism
1. For modern geologists, the question of how rocks are formed has been answereD、The processes by which sediments are cemented together to form sedimentary rocks, subterranean magma shoots to the surface to form igneous rocks, and intense heat and pressure transform both of these into metamorphic rocks are well understooD、But in the days when geology was just beginning to develop as a separate scientific discipline, the origin ofEarth’s rocks was the subject of an intense debate.Among the theories circulating around the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries were two primary contenders: Neptunism, posited by the GermanAbraham Werner, and Plutonism, a theory of James Hutton, a Scottish geologist.
2. To fully understand the debate between Neptunism and Plutonism, it is essential to first examine the broader scientific context in place at the time.Before the nineteenth century, the accepted view ofEarth’s history was defined by a concept known asCatastrophism. Its basic tenets were that the planet was of a young age and that its past was marked by a series of distinct and catastrophic events. InEngland in particular, this theory was influenced by the belief that a worldwide flood had occurred as described in theChristianBible.
3. Werner’s theory of Neptunism relied on some of the assumptions inherent inCatastrophism. The word Neptunism comes from the name of the Roman god of the sea, Neptune, as Werner suggested that all ofEarth had once been covered by a vast, hot ocean.The waters of this ocean, he said, contained small amounts of diluted minerals. Over time, these ancient waters evaporated and sank lower, and as they disappeared, the minerals remained and fused into crystals to produce the rocks and landmasses visible onEarth’s surface.A、series of later catastrophic floods, such as the one reported in theBible, added more rocks and explained the different rock layers that geologists were beginning to discover around this time.
4.Concurrently, there were many other geologists who were starting to reject the notion ofCatastrophism.
Much of the contemporary evidence being collected regarding fossils and the complexity and diversity of geologic formations suggested that the planet was much older than anyone had previously thought,
As a result, the theory of Uniformitarianism was introduced, which stated thatEarth’s geologic processes were gradual and unfolding at an incredibly slow rate over an immense timeframe.
Even more important for the field of geology, Uniformitarianism held that those same processes were still occurring.

5. James Hutton was among the earliest proponents of Uniformitarianism, and it greatly informed his theory of Plutonism. Named for the Roman god of the underworld, Pluto, it stated thatEarth’s rocks were created through the tremendous heat and force of volcanic activity. Hutton described a continuous cycle by which heat deep withinEarth pushed up the land above, creating mountains and volcanoes, and deposited rocks on the surface. Erosion over time would break down the rocks and transport their sediments to the bottom of the oceans, where they were heated and turned into solid rock once more, and again lifted to the surface by volcanic activity.This concept of a long, continuous cycle was a clear expression of Uniformitarianism and provided a better explanation for how the geologic complexities ofEarth had taken shape.
6.During the first half of the nineteenth century, increasing numbers of scientists adopted Hutton’s views, and today he is often refe

Cultural Shock
"Culture shock" might be called an occupational disease of people who have been suddenly transplanted abroaD、Like most ailments, it has its own symptoms and cure.
Culture shock is precipitated by the anxiety that results from losing all our signs and symbols of social intercourse. Those signs or cues include the thousand and one ways in which we orient ourselves to the situation of daily life; when to shake hands and what to say when we meet people, when and how to give tips, how to make purchases, when to accept and when to refuse invitations, when to take statements seriously and when not.
Now when an individual enters a strange culture, all or most of these familiar cues are removeD、He or she is like a fish out of water. No matter how broad-minded or full of goodwill you may be, a series of props has been knocked out from under you, followed by a feeling of frustration and anxiety. People react to the frustration in much the same way. First they reject the environment which causes the discomfort. "The ways of the host country are bad because they make us feel baD、" When foreigners in a strange land get together to grouse about the host country and its people, you can be sure they are suffering from culture shock.Another phase of culture shock is regression. The home environment suddenly assumes a tremendous importance. To the foreigner everything becomes irrationally glorifieD、All the difficulties and problems are forgotten and only the good things back home are remembereD、It usually takes a trip home to bring one back to reality.
Individuals differ greatly in the degree in which culture shock affects them.
A、[■]Although not common, there are individuals who cannot live in foreign countries.
B、[■]During the first few weeks most individuals are fascinated by the new.
C、[■] They stay in hotels and associate with nationals who speak their language and are polite and gracious to foreigners.
D、[■] This honeymoon stage may last from a few days or weeks to six months, depending on circumstances. If one is very important, he or she will be brought to visit the show places, will be pampered and petted, and in a press interview will speak glowingly about goodwill and international friendship.
But this mentality does not normally last if the foreign visitor remains abroad and needs to seriously cope with real conditions of life. It is then that the second stage begins, characterized by a hostile and aggressive attitude toward the host country. This hostility evidently grows out of the genuine difficulty which the visitor experiences in the process of adjustment. There are house troubles, transportation troubles, shopping troubles, and the fact that people in the host country are largely indifferent to all these troubles. They help, but they don’t understand your great concern over these difficulties. Therefore, they must be insensitive and unsympathetic to you and your worries. The result, "I just don’t like them." You become aggressive, you band together with others from your country and criticize the host country, its ways, and its people.But this criticism is not an objective appraisal.
You take refuge in the colony of others from your country which often becomes the fountainhead of emotionally charged labels known as stereotypes. This is a peculiar kind of offensive shorthand which caricatures the host country and its people in a negative manner. The "dollar graspingAmerican" and the "indolent LatinAmerican" are samples of mild forms of stereotypes. The second stage of culture shock is, in a sense, a crisis in the disease. If you come out of it, you leave before you reach the stage of a nervous breakdown.
If visitors succeed in acquiring some knowledge of the language and begin to get around by themselves, they are beginning to open the way into the new cultural environment. Visitors s

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