HistoricalChanges in theEuropeanArt World
1.European artists in the Late MiddleAges were accorded the same social status as blacksmiths, carpenters, tailors, and other craftsmen. Whereas philosophers, musicians, and poets were seen as exercising intellectual skills, artists were not. Like other craftsmen, they were organized under the guild system. Originally developed prior to the second millenniumAD, guilds were formal organizations founded by people who practiced a similar craft, with the intention of ensuring they received fair payment for their services and fostering the exchange of knowledge among members. In mostEuropean cities, there would be a masons’ guild, a smiths’ guild, and a carvers’ guild, along with those established by painters, sculptors, and architects. New members began as apprentices, learning from the masters of their craft, and if they demonstrated enough skill, they would one day be eligible to become master craftsmen themselves.
2. Then, in the fourteenth century,Europe entered a period of significant transformation known as the Renaissance. This term literally means "rebirth;’ as it describes an era whenEuropean scholars were rediscovering works of theClassical Greeks and Romans.Ancient texts on math, science, and philosophy, written by such figures as Plato andCicero, became the subjects of intense study and altered the ways in whichEuropeans Viewed their worlD、From its origins in Florence, Italy, the Renaissance radiated throughout the continent and affected every aspect of the lives of the people living there.
3. The quest forClassical knowledge that characterized the Renaissance also led to a rebirth of the conception of the artist,
Depiction of nature in its true form became the ideal, and painters began to study mathematical perspective and optics in order to more realistically represent their subjects.
This emphasis on intellectual investigation distinguished the arts from the so-called mechanical crafts, and artists witnessed a marked improvement in their social standing.
By the 1500s, descriptions like "genius" and "divine" were being ascribed to Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, and other creators of artistic masterpieces.

4. The Renaissance also spawned the introduction of formal educational institutions.Called academies, the first of these, such as the PlatonicAcademy founded in Florence in 1438, focused on literature and scientific disciplines. Soon, though, artistic pursuits were added to the curriculum, including everything from painting to architecture. Next came the rise of academies dedicated solely to education in the arts. Rome’sAcademy of St. Luke, established in 1593, was one of the most popular, and these centers quickly replaced the artists’ guilds as the premier purveyors^* of artistic knowledge.
5.By the close of the Renaissance in the late seventeenth century, academies of art had spread from Italy north to other regions. French academies became highly influential, and their mission shifted from general education to the cultivation of a national artists’ movement. Whereas the early Italian academies had not charged their pupils or limited their enrollment, French academies instituted tuition and entrance examination systems to ensure that only certain students were admitteD、Control was exercised by the government, and as time went on, the academies devised very specific artistic conventions that its members were expected to follow. Still emphasizing theClassical ideals that had flourished during the Renaissance, t

Family Matters
This month, Wyoming passed a bill that would give legal teeth to the moral obligation to support one’s parents.Called the Maintenance of ParentsBill, it received the backing of the Government.
That does not mean it hasn’t generated discussion. Several members of the Parliament opposed the measure. Others who acknowledged the problem of the elderly poor believed it a disproportionate response. Still others believe it will subvert relations within the family, cynics dubbed it the "Sue Your Son" law.
Those who say that the bill does not promote filial responsibility, of course, are right. It has nothing to do with filial responsibility. It kicks in where filial responsibility fails.All the law can do is to provide a safety net where this morality proves insufficient. Wyoming needs this bill not to replace morality, but to provide incentives to show it up.
Wyoming faces the problems of an increasing proportion of people over 60 years of age.Demography is inexorable. In 1980, 7.2% of the population was in this bracket.By 2030, the proportion is projected to be 26%. The problem is not old age persen. It is that the ratio of economically active people to economically inactive people will decline.
But no amount of government exhortation or paternalism will completely eliminate the problem of old people who have insufficient means to make ends meet. Some people will fall through the holes in any safety net.
Traditionally, a person’s insurance against poverty in his old age was his family care and support for one’s parents is a universal value shared by all civilized societies.
The problem in Wyoming is that the moral obligation to look after one’s parents is unenforceable.A、father can be compelled by law to maintain his children.A、husband can be forced to support his wife.But, until now, a son or daughter had no legal obligation to support his or her parents.
In 1989, anAdvisoryCouncil was set up to look into the problems of the ageD、Its report stated with a tinge of complacency that 95% of those who did not have their own income were receiving cash contributions from relations.But what about the 5% who aren’t getting relatives’ support They have several options:
(a) get a job and work until they die;
(b) apply for public assistance (you have to be destitute to apply); or
(c) starve quietly. None of these options is socially acceptable.And what if this 5% figure grows, as it is likely to do, as society ages
The Maintenance of ParentsBill was put forth to encourage the traditional virtues that have so far kept Wyoming from some of the breakdowns encountered in other affluent societies. This legislation will allow a person to apply to the court for maintenance from any or all of his children. The court would have the discretion to refuse to make an order if it is unjust.
Those who deride the proposal for opening up the courts to family lawsuits miss the point. Only in extreme cases would any parent take his child to court. If it does indeed become law, the bill’s effect would be far more subtle.
First, it will reaffirm the notion that it is each individual’s—not society’s—responsibility to look after his parents. Wyoming is still conservative enough that most people will not object to this ideA、
Second, and more important, it will make those who are inclined to shirk their responsibilities think twice.A、[■]But to be sued by one’s parents would be a massive loss of face. It would be a public disgrace.B、[■] The hand of the conciliator would be immeasurably strengtheneD、C、[■] It is far more likely that some sort of amicable settlement would be reached if the recalcitrant son or daughter knows that the alternative is a public trial.D、[■]
It would be nice to think Wyoming doesn’t need this kind of law. Those of us who pus

您正在结束答题

请确认是否提交试卷？

继续做题确认提交