托福考试易错题（2019/8/14）

HistoricalChanges in theEuropeanArt World
1.European artists in the Late MiddleAges were accorded the same social status as blacksmiths, carpenters, tailors, and other craftsmen. Whereas philosophers, musicians, and poets were seen as exercising intellectual skills, artists were not. Like other craftsmen, they were organized under the guild system. Originally developed prior to the second millenniumAD, guilds were formal organizations founded by people who practiced a similar craft, with the intention of ensuring they received fair payment for their services and fostering the exchange of knowledge among members. In mostEuropean cities, there would be a masons’ guild, a smiths’ guild, and a carvers’ guild, along with those established by painters, sculptors, and architects. New members began as apprentices, learning from the masters of their craft, and if they demonstrated enough skill, they would one day be eligible to become master craftsmen themselves.
2. Then, in the fourteenth century,Europe entered a period of significant transformation known as the Renaissance. This term literally means "rebirth;’ as it describes an era whenEuropean scholars were rediscovering works of theClassical Greeks and Romans.Ancient texts on math, science, and philosophy, written by such figures as Plato andCicero, became the subjects of intense study and altered the ways in whichEuropeans Viewed their worlD、From its origins in Florence, Italy, the Renaissance radiated throughout the continent and affected every aspect of the lives of the people living there.
3. The quest forClassical knowledge that characterized the Renaissance also led to a rebirth of the conception of the artist,
Depiction of nature in its true form became the ideal, and painters began to study mathematical perspective and optics in order to more realistically represent their subjects.
This emphasis on intellectual investigation distinguished the arts from the so-called mechanical crafts, and artists witnessed a marked improvement in their social standing.
By the 1500s, descriptions like "genius" and "divine" were being ascribed to Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, and other creators of artistic masterpieces.

4. The Renaissance also spawned the introduction of formal educational institutions.Called academies, the first of these, such as the PlatonicAcademy founded in Florence in 1438, focused on literature and scientific disciplines. Soon, though, artistic pursuits were added to the curriculum, including everything from painting to architecture. Next came the rise of academies dedicated solely to education in the arts. Rome’sAcademy of St. Luke, established in 1593, was one of the most popular, and these centers quickly replaced the artists’ guilds as the premier purveyors^* of artistic knowledge.
5.By the close of the Renaissance in the late seventeenth century, academies of art had spread from Italy north to other regions. French academies became highly influential, and their mission shifted from general education to the cultivation of a national artists’ movement. Whereas the early Italian academies had not charged their pupils or limited their enrollment, French academies instituted tuition and entrance examination systems to ensure that only certain students were admitteD、Control was exercised by the government, and as time went on, the academies devised very specific artistic conventions that its members were expected to follow. Still emphasizing theClassical ideals that had flourished during the Renaissance, t

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