【单选题】looking At thEAtrE history
onE oF thE primAry wAys oF ApproAChing thE grEEk thEAtrE is through ArChEology, thE systEmAtiC stuDy oF mAtEriAl rEmAins suCh As ArChitECturE, insCriptions, sCulpturE, vAsE pAinting, AnD othEr Forms oF DECorAtivE Art.
sErious on-sitE ExCAvAtions BEgAn in grEECE ArounD 1870, But w.D6rpFElD DiD not BEgin thE First ExtEnsivE stuDy oF thE thEAtrE oFDionysus until 1886.
sinCE thAt timE, morE thAn 167 othEr grEEk thEAtrEs hAvE BEEn iDEntiFiED AnD mAny oF thEm hAvE BEEn ExCAvAtED、
nEvErthElEss, thEy still Do not pErmit us to DEsCriBE thE prECisE AppEArAnCE oF thE skEnE (illustrAtions printED in Books ArE ConjECturAl rEConstruCtions), sinCE mAny piECEs ArE irrEvoCABly lost BECAusE thE BuilDings in lAtEr pErioDs BECAmE sourCEs oF stonE For othEr projECts AnD whAt rEmAins is usuAlly BrokEn AnD sCAttErED、
thAt most oF thE BuilDings wErE rEmoDElED mAny timEs hAs CrEAtED grEAt proBlEms For thosE sEEking to DAtE Both thE pArts AnD thE suCCEssivE vErsions.DEspitE thEsE DrAwBACks, ArChEology proviDEs thE most ConCrEtE EviDEnCE wE hAvE ABout thE thEAtrE struCturEs oF AnCiEnt grEECE.But, iF thEy hAvE tolD us muCh, ArChEologists hAvE not ComplEtED thEir work, AnD mAny sitEs hAvE sCArCEly BEEn touChED、
pErhAps thE most ControvErsiAl usE oF ArChEologiCAl EviDEnCE in thEAtrE history is vAsE pAintings, thousAnDs oF whiCh hAvE survivED From AnCiEnt grEECE. (most oF thosE usED By thEAtrE sCholArs ArE rEproDuCED in mArgArEtEBiEBEr’s "thE history oF thE grEEk AnD romAn thEAtrE". )DEpiCting sCEnEs From mythology AnD DAily liFE, thE vAsEs ArE thE most grAphiC piCtoriAl EviDEnCE wE hAvE, But thEy ArE Also EAsy to misintErprEt. somE sCholArs hAvE ConsiDErED Any vAsE thAt DEpiCts A suBjECt trEAtED in A surviving DrAmA or Any sCEnE showing mAsks, FlutE plAyErs, or CErEmoniAls to BE vAliD EviDEnCE oF thEAtriCAl prACtiCE. this is A highly quEstionABlE Assumption, sinCE thE grEEks mADE wiDEsprEAD usE oF mAsks, DAnCEs, AnD musiC outsiDE thE thEAtrE AnD sinCE thE myths on whiCh DrAmAtists DrEw wErE known to EvEryonE, inCluDing vAsE pAintErs, who might wEll DEpiCt thE sAmE suBjECts As DrAmAtists without BEing inDEBtED to thEm. thosE vAsEs showing sCEnEs unquEstionABly thEAtriCAl ArE FEw in numBEr.
writtEn EviDEnCE ABout AnCiEnt grEEk thEAtrE is oFtEn trEAtED As lEss rEliABlE thAn ArChEologiCAl EviDEnCE BECAusE most writtEn ACCounts ArE sEpArAtED so FAr in timE From thE EvEnts thEy DEsCriBE AnD BECAusE thEy proviDE no inFormAtion ABout thEir own sourCEs. oF thE writtEn EviDEnCE, thE surviving plAys ArE usuAlly trEAtED As thE most rEliABlE.But thE olDEst surviving mAnusCripts oF grEEk plAys DAtE From ArounD thE tEnth CEntury,C、E、, somE 1500 yEArs AFtEr thEy wErE First pErFormED、sinCE printing DiD not Exist During this timE spAn, CopiEs oF plAys hAD to BE mADE By hAnD, AnD thErEForE thE possiBility oF tExtuAl Errors CrEEping in wAs mAgniFiED、nEvErthElEss, thE sCripts oFFEr us our rEADiEst ACCEss to thE CulturAl AnD thEAtriCAl ConDitions out oF whiCh thEy CAmE.But thEsE sCripts, likE othEr kinDs oF EviDEnCE, ArE suBjECt to vArying intErprEtAtions.CErtAinly pErFormAnCEs EmBoDiED A mAlE pErspECtivE, For ExAmplE, sinCE thE plAys wErE writtEn, sElECtED, stAgED, AnD ACtED By mEn. yEt thE Existing plAys FEAturE numErous ChorusEs oF womEn AnD mAny FEAturE strong FEmAlE ChArACtErs.BECAusE thEsE ChArACtErs oFtEn sEEm viCtims oF thEir own powErlEssnEss AnD AppEAr to BE govErnED, EspECiAlly in thE ComEDiEs, By sExuAl DEsirE, somE CritiCs hAvE sEEn thEsE plAys As rAtionAlizAtions By thE mAlE-DominAtED CulturE For kEEping womEn sEgrEgAtED AnD CloistErED、othEr CritiCs, ho
onE oF thE primAry wAys oF ApproAChing thE grEEk thEAtrE is through ArChEology, thE systEmAtiC stuDy oF mAtEriAl rEmAins suCh As ArChitECturE, insCriptions, sCulpturE, vAsE pAinting, AnD othEr Forms oF DECorAtivE Art.
sErious on-sitE ExCAvAtions BEgAn in grEECE ArounD 1870, But w.D6rpFElD DiD not BEgin thE First ExtEnsivE stuDy oF thE thEAtrE oFDionysus until 1886.
sinCE thAt timE, morE thAn 167 othEr grEEk thEAtrEs hAvE BEEn iDEntiFiED AnD mAny oF thEm hAvE BEEn ExCAvAtED、
nEvErthElEss, thEy still Do not pErmit us to DEsCriBE thE prECisE AppEArAnCE oF thE skEnE (illustrAtions printED in Books ArE ConjECturAl rEConstruCtions), sinCE mAny piECEs ArE irrEvoCABly lost BECAusE thE BuilDings in lAtEr pErioDs BECAmE sourCEs oF stonE For othEr projECts AnD whAt rEmAins is usuAlly BrokEn AnD sCAttErED、
thAt most oF thE BuilDings wErE rEmoDElED mAny timEs hAs CrEAtED grEAt proBlEms For thosE sEEking to DAtE Both thE pArts AnD thE suCCEssivE vErsions.DEspitE thEsE DrAwBACks, ArChEology proviDEs thE most ConCrEtE EviDEnCE wE hAvE ABout thE thEAtrE struCturEs oF AnCiEnt grEECE.But, iF thEy hAvE tolD us muCh, ArChEologists hAvE not ComplEtED thEir work, AnD mAny sitEs hAvE sCArCEly BEEn touChED、
pErhAps thE most ControvErsiAl usE oF ArChEologiCAl EviDEnCE in thEAtrE history is vAsE pAintings, thousAnDs oF whiCh hAvE survivED From AnCiEnt grEECE. (most oF thosE usED By thEAtrE sCholArs ArE rEproDuCED in mArgArEtEBiEBEr’s "thE history oF thE grEEk AnD romAn thEAtrE". )DEpiCting sCEnEs From mythology AnD DAily liFE, thE vAsEs ArE thE most grAphiC piCtoriAl EviDEnCE wE hAvE, But thEy ArE Also EAsy to misintErprEt. somE sCholArs hAvE ConsiDErED Any vAsE thAt DEpiCts A suBjECt trEAtED in A surviving DrAmA or Any sCEnE showing mAsks, FlutE plAyErs, or CErEmoniAls to BE vAliD EviDEnCE oF thEAtriCAl prACtiCE. this is A highly quEstionABlE Assumption, sinCE thE grEEks mADE wiDEsprEAD usE oF mAsks, DAnCEs, AnD musiC outsiDE thE thEAtrE AnD sinCE thE myths on whiCh DrAmAtists DrEw wErE known to EvEryonE, inCluDing vAsE pAintErs, who might wEll DEpiCt thE sAmE suBjECts As DrAmAtists without BEing inDEBtED to thEm. thosE vAsEs showing sCEnEs unquEstionABly thEAtriCAl ArE FEw in numBEr.
writtEn EviDEnCE ABout AnCiEnt grEEk thEAtrE is oFtEn trEAtED As lEss rEliABlE thAn ArChEologiCAl EviDEnCE BECAusE most writtEn ACCounts ArE sEpArAtED so FAr in timE From thE EvEnts thEy DEsCriBE AnD BECAusE thEy proviDE no inFormAtion ABout thEir own sourCEs. oF thE writtEn EviDEnCE, thE surviving plAys ArE usuAlly trEAtED As thE most rEliABlE.But thE olDEst surviving mAnusCripts oF grEEk plAys DAtE From ArounD thE tEnth CEntury,C、E、, somE 1500 yEArs AFtEr thEy wErE First pErFormED、sinCE printing DiD not Exist During this timE spAn, CopiEs oF plAys hAD to BE mADE By hAnD, AnD thErEForE thE possiBility oF tExtuAl Errors CrEEping in wAs mAgniFiED、nEvErthElEss, thE sCripts oFFEr us our rEADiEst ACCEss to thE CulturAl AnD thEAtriCAl ConDitions out oF whiCh thEy CAmE.But thEsE sCripts, likE othEr kinDs oF EviDEnCE, ArE suBjECt to vArying intErprEtAtions.CErtAinly pErFormAnCEs EmBoDiED A mAlE pErspECtivE, For ExAmplE, sinCE thE plAys wErE writtEn, sElECtED, stAgED, AnD ACtED By mEn. yEt thE Existing plAys FEAturE numErous ChorusEs oF womEn AnD mAny FEAturE strong FEmAlE ChArACtErs.BECAusE thEsE ChArACtErs oFtEn sEEm viCtims oF thEir own powErlEssnEss AnD AppEAr to BE govErnED, EspECiAlly in thE ComEDiEs, By sExuAl DEsirE, somE CritiCs hAvE sEEn thEsE plAys As rAtionAlizAtions By thE mAlE-DominAtED CulturE For kEEping womEn sEgrEgAtED AnD CloistErED、othEr CritiCs, ho
【单选题】 Scientists concluded from the experiment with chimpanzees and chocolate chips that chimpanzees
A.( lack abilities that other primates have
B.( prefer to work in pairs or groups
C.( exhibit behavior that indicates certain mathematical abilities
D.( have difficulty selecting when given choices
A.( lack abilities that other primates have
B.( prefer to work in pairs or groups
C.( exhibit behavior that indicates certain mathematical abilities
D.( have difficulty selecting when given choices
【多选题】 Our order of high-speed computers is scheduled to arrive __________ today or tomorrow.
A.or
B.on
C.both
D.either
A.or
B.on
C.both
D.either
【单选题】 Migraine headaches are more frequent among women — among men.
A.( than
B.( however
C.( except for
D.( as air
A.( than
B.( however
C.( except for
D.( as air
【多选题】rEADing 3 "groupDECision mAking"
ADvAntAgEs oF groupDECision mAking
→CommittEEs, tAsk ForCEs, AnD AD hoC groups ArE FrEquEntly AssignED to iDEntiFy AnD rECommEnD DECision AltErnAtivEs or, in somE CAsEs, to ACtuAlly mAkE importAnt DECisions. in EssEnCE, A group is A tool thAt CAn FoCus thE ExpEriEnCE AnD ExpErtisE oF sEvErAl pEoplE on A pArtiCulAr proBlEm or situAtion. thus, A group oFFErs thE ADvAntAgE oF grEAtEr totAl knowlEDgE. groups ACCumulAtE morE inFormAtion, knowlEDgE, AnD FACts thAn inDiviDuAls AnD oFtEn ConsiDEr morE AltErnAtivEs.EACh pErson in thE group is ABlE to DrAw on his or hEr uniquE EDuCAtion, ExpEriEnCE, insights, AnD othEr rEsourCEs AnD ContriButE thosE to thE group. thE vAriED BACkgrounDs, trAining lEvEls, AnD ExpErtisE oF group mEmBErs Also hElp ovErComE tunnEl vision By EnABling thE group to viEw thE proBlEm in morE thAn onE wAy.
→ pArtiCipAtion in group DECision mAking usuAlly lEADs to highEr mEmBEr sAtisFACtion. pEoplE tEnD to ACCEpt A DECision morE rEADily AnD to BE BEttEr sAtisFiED with it whEn thEy hAvE pArtiCipAtED in mAking thAt DECision. in ADDition, pEoplE will BEttEr unDErstAnD AnD BE morE CommittED to A DECision in whiCh thEy hAvE hAD A sAy thAn to A DECision mADE For thEm.As A rEsult, suCh A DECision is morE likEly to BE implEmEntED suCCEssFully.
DisADvAntAgEs oF groupDECision mAking
→ whilE groups hAvE mAny potEntiAl BEnEFits, wE All know thAt thEy CAn Also BE FrustrAting.
onE oBvious DisADvAntAgE oF group DECision mAking is thE timErEquirED to mAkE A DECision.
thE timE nEEDED For group DisCussion AnD thE AssoCiAtED Compromising AnD sElECting oF A DECision AltErnAtivE CAn BE ConsiDErABlE.
timE Costs monEy, so A wAstE oF timE BEComEs A DisADvAntAgE iF A DECision mADE By A group CoulD hAvE BEEn mADE just As EFFECtivEly By An inDiviDuAl working AlonE.
ConsEquEntly, group DECisions shoulD BE AvoiDED whEn spEED AnD EFFiCiEnCy ArE thE primAry ConsiDErAtions.
A、sEConD DisADvAntAgE is thAt thE group DisCussion mAy BE DominAtED By An inDiviDuAl or suBgroup.EFFECtivEnEss CAn BE rEDuCED iF onE inDiviDuAl, suCh As thE group lEADEr, DominAtEs thE DisCussion By tAlking too muCh or BEing ClosED to othEr points oF viEw. somE group lEADErs try to Control thE group AnD proviDE thE mAjor input. suCh DominAnCE CAn stiFlE othEr group mEmBErs’ willingnEss to pArtiCipAtE AnD CoulD CAusE DECision AltErnAtivEs to BE ignorED or ovErlookED、All group mEmBErs nEED to BE EnCourAgED AnD pErmittED to ContriButE.
→AnothEr DisADvAntAgE oF group DECision mAking is thAt mEmBErs mAy BE lEss ConCErnED with thE group’s goAls thAn with thEir own pErsonAl goAls. thEy mAy BEComE so siDEtrACkED in trying to win An ArgumEnt thAt thEy ForgEt ABout group pErFormAnCE. on thE othEr hAnD, A group mAy try too hArD to CompromisE AnD ConsEquEntly mAy not mAkE optimAl DECisions. somEtimEs this stEms From thE DEsirE to mAintAin FriEnDships AnD AvoiD DisAgrEEmEnts. oFtEn groups ExErt trEmEnDous soCiAl prEssurE on inDiviDuAls to ConForm to EstABlishED or ExpECtED pAttErns ot BEhAvior.EspECiAlly whEn thEy ArE DEAling with importAnt AnD ControvErsiAl issuEs, intErACting groups mAy BE pronE to A phEnomEnon CAllED groupthink.
→ groupthink is An AgrEEmEnt-At-Any-Cost mEntAlity thAt rEsults in inEFFECtivE group DECision mAking. it oCCurs whEn groups ArE highly CohEsivE, hAvE highly DirECtivE lEADErs, ArE insulAtED so thEy hAvE no ClEAr wAys to gEt oBjECtivE inFormAtion, AnD—BECAusE thEy lACk outsiDE inFormAtion—hAvE littlE hopE thAt A BEttEr solution might BE FounD thAn thE onE proposED By thE lEADEr or othEr inFluEntiAl group mEmBErs. thEsE ConDitions Fo
ADvAntAgEs oF groupDECision mAking
→CommittEEs, tAsk ForCEs, AnD AD hoC groups ArE FrEquEntly AssignED to iDEntiFy AnD rECommEnD DECision AltErnAtivEs or, in somE CAsEs, to ACtuAlly mAkE importAnt DECisions. in EssEnCE, A group is A tool thAt CAn FoCus thE ExpEriEnCE AnD ExpErtisE oF sEvErAl pEoplE on A pArtiCulAr proBlEm or situAtion. thus, A group oFFErs thE ADvAntAgE oF grEAtEr totAl knowlEDgE. groups ACCumulAtE morE inFormAtion, knowlEDgE, AnD FACts thAn inDiviDuAls AnD oFtEn ConsiDEr morE AltErnAtivEs.EACh pErson in thE group is ABlE to DrAw on his or hEr uniquE EDuCAtion, ExpEriEnCE, insights, AnD othEr rEsourCEs AnD ContriButE thosE to thE group. thE vAriED BACkgrounDs, trAining lEvEls, AnD ExpErtisE oF group mEmBErs Also hElp ovErComE tunnEl vision By EnABling thE group to viEw thE proBlEm in morE thAn onE wAy.
→ pArtiCipAtion in group DECision mAking usuAlly lEADs to highEr mEmBEr sAtisFACtion. pEoplE tEnD to ACCEpt A DECision morE rEADily AnD to BE BEttEr sAtisFiED with it whEn thEy hAvE pArtiCipAtED in mAking thAt DECision. in ADDition, pEoplE will BEttEr unDErstAnD AnD BE morE CommittED to A DECision in whiCh thEy hAvE hAD A sAy thAn to A DECision mADE For thEm.As A rEsult, suCh A DECision is morE likEly to BE implEmEntED suCCEssFully.
DisADvAntAgEs oF groupDECision mAking
→ whilE groups hAvE mAny potEntiAl BEnEFits, wE All know thAt thEy CAn Also BE FrustrAting.
onE oBvious DisADvAntAgE oF group DECision mAking is thE timErEquirED to mAkE A DECision.
thE timE nEEDED For group DisCussion AnD thE AssoCiAtED Compromising AnD sElECting oF A DECision AltErnAtivE CAn BE ConsiDErABlE.
timE Costs monEy, so A wAstE oF timE BEComEs A DisADvAntAgE iF A DECision mADE By A group CoulD hAvE BEEn mADE just As EFFECtivEly By An inDiviDuAl working AlonE.
ConsEquEntly, group DECisions shoulD BE AvoiDED whEn spEED AnD EFFiCiEnCy ArE thE primAry ConsiDErAtions.
A、sEConD DisADvAntAgE is thAt thE group DisCussion mAy BE DominAtED By An inDiviDuAl or suBgroup.EFFECtivEnEss CAn BE rEDuCED iF onE inDiviDuAl, suCh As thE group lEADEr, DominAtEs thE DisCussion By tAlking too muCh or BEing ClosED to othEr points oF viEw. somE group lEADErs try to Control thE group AnD proviDE thE mAjor input. suCh DominAnCE CAn stiFlE othEr group mEmBErs’ willingnEss to pArtiCipAtE AnD CoulD CAusE DECision AltErnAtivEs to BE ignorED or ovErlookED、All group mEmBErs nEED to BE EnCourAgED AnD pErmittED to ContriButE.
→AnothEr DisADvAntAgE oF group DECision mAking is thAt mEmBErs mAy BE lEss ConCErnED with thE group’s goAls thAn with thEir own pErsonAl goAls. thEy mAy BEComE so siDEtrACkED in trying to win An ArgumEnt thAt thEy ForgEt ABout group pErFormAnCE. on thE othEr hAnD, A group mAy try too hArD to CompromisE AnD ConsEquEntly mAy not mAkE optimAl DECisions. somEtimEs this stEms From thE DEsirE to mAintAin FriEnDships AnD AvoiD DisAgrEEmEnts. oFtEn groups ExErt trEmEnDous soCiAl prEssurE on inDiviDuAls to ConForm to EstABlishED or ExpECtED pAttErns ot BEhAvior.EspECiAlly whEn thEy ArE DEAling with importAnt AnD ControvErsiAl issuEs, intErACting groups mAy BE pronE to A phEnomEnon CAllED groupthink.
→ groupthink is An AgrEEmEnt-At-Any-Cost mEntAlity thAt rEsults in inEFFECtivE group DECision mAking. it oCCurs whEn groups ArE highly CohEsivE, hAvE highly DirECtivE lEADErs, ArE insulAtED so thEy hAvE no ClEAr wAys to gEt oBjECtivE inFormAtion, AnD—BECAusE thEy lACk outsiDE inFormAtion—hAvE littlE hopE thAt A BEttEr solution might BE FounD thAn thE onE proposED By thE lEADEr or othEr inFluEntiAl group mEmBErs. thEsE ConDitions Fo
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